A wide hybrid zone mediated by precipitation contributed to confused geographical structure of .

Confused geographical structure of a population and mitonuclear discordance are shaped by a combination of rapid changes in population demographics and shifts in ecology. In this study, we generated a time-calibrated phylogeny of , an endemic Xizang alpine toad occurring in mountain streams on the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau (QTP). Based on three mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genes, eight clades were assigned to three deeply divergent lineages. Analysis of nuclear DNA (nuDNA) genes revealed three distinct clusters without geographic structure, indicating significantly high rates of gene flow. Coalescent theory framework analysis (approximate Bayesian computation model DIYABC and Migrate-N) suggested that divergence of the main intraspecific clusters was the result of hybridization after secondary contact in the Holocene around 0.59 million years ago (Ma). The ratio of mtDNA (fixation index) to nuDNA was 2.3, thus failing to show male-biased dispersal. Geographic cline analysis showed that a wide hybrid zone was initially established in southwestern China, without significant reproductive isolation but with strong introgression in . , suggesting high hybrid fitness. Furthermore, mtDNA genes exhibited isolation by distance (IBD) while nuDNA genes exhibited significant isolation by environment (IBE). Results suggested that mitonuclear discordance may have initially been caused by geographic isolation, followed by precipitation-mediated hybridization, producing a wide hybrid zone and geographic structure confusion of nuDNA genes in . . This study indicated that complicated historical processes may have led to specific genetic patterns, with a specific climate factor facilitating gene flow in the system.