Toluidine blue O directly and photodynamically impairs the bioenergetics of liver mitochondria: a potential mechanism of hepatotoxicity.

Toluidine blue O (TBO) is a phenothiazine dye that, due to its photochemical characteristics and high affinity for biomembranes, has been revealed as a new photosensitizer (PS) option for antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (PDT). This points to a possible association with membranous organelles like mitochondrion. Therefore, here we investigated its effects on mitochondrial bioenergetic functions both in the dark and under photostimulation. Two experimental systems were utilized: (a) isolated rat liver mitochondria and (b) isolated perfused rat liver. Our data revealed that, independently of photostimulation, TBO presented affinity for mitochondria. Under photostimulation, TBO increased the protein carbonylation and lipid peroxidation levels (up to 109.40 and 119.87%, respectively) and decreased the reduced glutathione levels (59.72%) in mitochondria. TBO also uncoupled oxidative phosphorylation and photoinactivated the respiratory chain complexes I, II, and IV, as well as the FF-ATP synthase complex. Without photostimulation, TBO caused uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and loss of inner mitochondrial membrane integrity and inhibited very strongly succinate oxidase activity. TBO's uncoupling effect was clearly seen in intact livers where it stimulated oxygen consumption at concentrations of 20 and 40 μM. Additionally, TBO (40 μM) reduced cellular ATP levels (52.46%) and ATP/ADP (45.98%) and ATP/AMP (74.17%) ratios. Consequently, TBO inhibited gluconeogenesis and ureagenesis whereas it stimulated glycogenolysis and glycolysis. In conclusion, we have revealed for the first time that the efficiency of TBO as a PS may be linked to its ability to photodynamically inhibit oxidative phosphorylation. In contrast, TBO is harmful to mitochondrial energy metabolism even without photostimulation, which may lead to adverse effects when used in PDT.