Non-antibiotic strategies for prevention and treatment of internalized .

() infections are often difficult to cure completely. One of the main reasons for this difficulty is that can be internalized into cells after infecting tissue. Because conventional antibiotics and immune cells have difficulty entering cells, the bacteria can survive long enough to cause recurrent infections, which poses a serious burden in healthcare settings because repeated infections drastically increase treatment costs. Therefore, preventing and treating internalization is becoming a research hotspot. internalization can essentially be divided into three phases: (1) binds to the extracellular matrix (ECM), (2) fibronectin (Fn) receptors mediate internalization into cells, and (3) intracellular and persistence into cells. Different phases require different treatments. Many studies have reported on different treatments at different phases of bacterial infection. In the first and second phases, the latest research results show that the cell wall-anchored protein vaccine and some microbial agents can inhibit the adhesion of to host cells. In the third phase, nanoparticles, photochemical internalization (PCI), cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), and bacteriophage therapy can effectively eliminate bacteria from cells. In this paper, the recent progress in the infection process and the prevention and treatment of internalization is summarized by reviewing a large number of studies.