Hydrophilic cyanotoxins (HCTs), such as paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), anatoxin-a (ATX-a), and cylindrospermopsin (CYN) are highly toxic and toxin-producing algae are widely distributed worldwide. However, HCTs, especially PSTs, are rarely reported in freshwater due to analytical limitations. This may result in an underestimation of the ecological risks and health risks. This study developed a new method to detect ATX-a, CYN, and thirteen common PSTs in freshwater simultaneously by using off-line solid phase extraction (SPE) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The limits of detection (LODs) of all targets were lower than 0.05 μg/L, which could meet the regulatory requirements for monitoring of HCTs in drinking water in different countries and regions. To improve the detection sensitivities for trace PSTs, a method based on off-line SPE and on-line SPE-LC-MS/MS was established with LOD around 0.001 μg/L. GTX1&4, GTX2&3, and GTX5 were detected in freshwater in China for the first time, highlighting that overall communities are facing potential risks of exposure to various PSTs in China. High concentrations of ATX-a and CYN were also detected in freshwater from Northern China. The proposed method helps to understand the pollution status of HCT in water bodies, especially during the non-algal bloom period.
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| http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158545 | DOI Listing |
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