Insights into phenanthrene attenuation by hydroxyl radicals from reduced iron-bearing mineral oxygenation.

The oxygenation of Fe(II)-bearing minerals for hydroxyl radicals (HO) formation and contaminant attenuation receive increasing attention, while the mechanisms for specific Fe(II) species in manipulating HO formation and contaminant attenuation are unclear. Herein, a total of four Fe(III)-bearing minerals were applied in the reduction-oxygenation processes to produce HO. Results showed that the total HO generated from the Fe-(oxyhydr)oxides were significantly higher than those from the Fe-silicates, with the order of goethite and hematite (~1500 μmol kg) > Fe-montmorillonite (~550 μmol kg) > chlorite (~120 μmol kg). The HO formation was largely hinged on the reactive Fe(II) species, i.e., the surface-adsorbed/low-crystalline Fe(II) in the Fe-bearing minerals. For the co-incubation of minerals and phenanthrene, the concentrations of phenanthrene decreased from the initial 3.0 mg L to 0.7 mg L and 1.9 mg L for Fe-montmorillonite and goethite, respectively, suggesting the HO mediated by the Fe-montmorillonite was more conducive for phenanthrene attenuation. The goethite tended to promote the formation of free HO, while the Fe-montmorillonite with interlayer structure can provide attachment sites for the surface-adsorbed/low-crystalline Fe(II), resulting in high potential for surface-bound HO formation and phenanthrene attenuation. This study highlights the importance of Fe-bearing minerals in manipulating HO formation, providing new insight into the removal of contaminants in ecosystems.