Genetic population structure and reproductive system of two invasive Asian earthworms, and .

The invasive Asian earthworms, and , have been successful in entering North American forests in recent decades, with significant damage to both soils and above-ground environments. This success could be driven in part by a polyploid genetic system and parthenogenetic reproduction, often suggested as benefits for invasive species. Therefore, we assessed the genetic population structure, genetic diversity, and reproductive system of both species using morphological traits and panels of microsatellite markers. A total of 216 and 196 from six sites in Vermont USA were analyzed. Although all worms were morphologically hermaphroditic, all the lacked the male pore (the structure allowing pass of sperm between individuals), and only 19% of the possessed the male pore. All earthworms were triploid (scored for three alleles for at least 1 locus, and usually several), and was a mix of triploid and diploid individuals. Notable was the high proportion (80%) of earthworms that were diploid at one site. There was clearly clonal reproduction, with identical seven- locus genotypes observed for earthworms from each site, with as many as 45 individuals with the identical genotype at one site. However, the earthworms were also genetically diverse, with 14 genotypes observed for and 54 for , and with many singleton genotypes (a single individual). Most genotypes (71% for and 92% for ) were found at a single site. The greatest number of genotypes was found at a commercial nursery where fully 23/26 earthworms were singleton genotypes. As expected for the pattern of private clone alleles at sites, several measures of geographic genetic differentiation were positive, and as expected for triploid systems, an AMOVA analysis showed high within-individual genetic diversity. The paradox of clear clonal reproduction, but with a great number of genotypes for each species, and the mix of triploid and diploid individuals could be explained if the worms have been sexually reproductive, with the switch to the uniparental system only recently (or even if sexual reproduction is episodic). Last, a large number of microsatellite loci were recovered for each species and there sequence and suggested PCR primers are provided for free use by other researchers.