Assessing the environmental impacts and costs of biochar and monitored natural attenuation for groundwater heavily contaminated with volatile organic compounds.

Although biochar (BC) and monitored natural attenuation (MNA) are regarded as green technologies for remediating volatile organic compounds (VOCs) contaminated groundwater, their life cycle environmental impacts and costs have not been systematically quantified. This work assessed the primary and secondary environmental impacts and the cost of three options for remediating the groundwater at a closed pesticide manufacturing plant site, which was contaminated by high levels of multiple VOCs and is undergoing MNA. The studied options include a combination of MNA and BC (MNA + BC), BC, and pump and treat (PT). The environmental impacts were examined through a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) using the ReCiPe 2016 method. The costs were evaluated using a Life Cycle Cost (LCC) method created in the SimaPro. The LCA results show that the overall environmental impacts follow the sequence of PT > BC > MNA + BC, but MNA + BC shows evident primary impacts. The CO eq emissions generated from PT are more than five times of MNA + BC or BC. The cement, electricity, and steel for construction, and the operation energy are the environmental hotspots in PT. In MNA + BC and BC, the electricity for feedstock pyrolysis is the environmental hotspot, while the use of BC by-products to generate heat and power has positive environmental credit that compensates other negative environmental burdens. Incorporating institutional controls, using renewable energy and recycled or alternative materials, and developing BC with superior adsorption capacity are recommended to optimize the remediation strategies. The LCC results show that PT renders the highest cost, with cement and electricity being the two most expensive items. Electricity is the dominant contributor to the costs of MNA + BC and BC, while the avoided heat and power generation can save the cost of other items. Overall, this study provides scientific support to develop and optimize green remediation solutions for VOCs contaminated groundwater.