Deep brain stimulation for opioid use disorder: A systematic review of preclinical and clinical evidence.

Opioid use disorder (OUD) is a chronic and complex disease characterized by repeated relapses and remissions. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) has been discussed again and again as a potentially helpful neuromodulatory procedure in this context. In this review, for the first time, we intended to systematically identify the positive and negative effects of DBS in human and animal models of opioid dependence to assess the viability of DBS as a treatment of OUD. Eligible studies were incorporated by a comprehensive literature search and evaluated through proper methodological quality assessment tools. Findings showed that the nucleus accumbens was the most stimulated brain target in human and animal studies, and DBS was applied chiefly in the form of high-frequency stimulation (HFS). DBS administration effectively reduced opioid craving and consumption in human and animal subjects dependent on opioids. DBS represents a valuable alternative strategy for treating intractable opioid addiction. Based on our systematic literature analysis, research efforts in this field should be continued.