[Effectiveness and Ethical Evaluation of Nudging to Promote the Self-Management in Diabetes Mellitus Type 2].

Background: Nudges offer a wide range of options for protecting health in everyday life that supplements traditional public health measures. Against this background, we conducted initial investigations on the effectiveness and ethical aspects of different nudges for promoting self-management of patients with diabetes mellitus type 2 in the context of Disease Management Programs (DMPs).

Methods: The ethical assessment of the nudges was done within the systematic framework of Marckmann et al. (2015) for public health ethics. The existing evidence on the effectiveness of nudges was summarised by means of a narrative literature review.

Results: Target agreements with implementation plans, reminder, feedback reports, shared appointments of patients with physicians, peer mentoring, and behavior contracts are nudging interventions with moderate interference with personal rights and relatively unproblematic ethical requirements, which have demonstrated effectiveness in different contexts. Default enrollment for patient training courses, involvement of partners, confrontation with social norms, and shocking pictures may be effective as well; however, they interfere more deeply with the freedom and privacy of patients and, therefore, are bound to stronger ethical requirements and restrictions. The evidence base is still insufficient, especially for social support measures by relatives and peers.

Conclusions: Nudging offers a wide range of targeted interventions for supporting self-management of patients with chronic diseases, the potential of which has not yet been fully realized. Particularly promising interventions should be tested in pilot studies for their acceptance, effectiveness and cost-effectiveness in the context of DMPs.