Diversity of carbapenem-resistant and bacteriophage-mediated spread of the Oxa23 carbapenemase.

Carbapenem-resistant are prevalent in low- and middle-income countries such as Egypt, but little is known about the molecular epidemiology and mechanisms of resistance in these settings. Here, we characterize carbapenem-resistant from Alexandria, Egypt, and place it in a regional context. Fifty-four carbapenem-resistant isolates from Alexandria Main University Hospital (AMUH), Alexandria, Egypt, collected between 2010 and 2015 were genome sequenced using Illumina technology. Genomes were assembled and annotated. Genomes for 36 isolates from the Middle East region were downloaded from GenBank. The core-gene compliment was determined using Roary, and analyses of recombination were performed in Gubbins. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) sequence type (ST) and antibiotic-resistance genes were identified. The majority of Egyptian isolates belonged to one of three major clades, corresponding to Pasteur MLST clonal complex (CC) 1, CC2 and ST158. Strains belonging to ST158 have been reported almost exclusively from North Africa, the Middle East and Pakistan, and may represent a region-specific lineage. All isolates carried an gene, six carried and one carried . The gene was located on a variety of different mobile elements, with Tn predominant in CC2 strains, and Tn predominant in other lineages. Of particular concern, in 8 of the 13 CC1 strains, the gene was located in a temperate bacteriophage phiOXA, previously identified only once before in a CC1 clone from the USA military. The carbapenem-resistant population in AMUH is very diverse, and indicates an endemic circulating population, including a region-specific lineage. A major mechanism for dissemination in CC1 isolates appears to be a bacteriophage, presenting new concerns about the ability of these carbapenemases to spread throughout the bacterial population.