Lithium and endocrine dysfunction.

Lithium carbonate is a commonly prescribed drug for bipolar disorders. In addition to its action on the central nervous system, lithium has systemic effects on multiple organs such as kidney, heart, motor end plate, thyroid and parathyroid glands. It can cause hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, goiter and ophthalmopathy by different mechanisms. It increases intrathyroid iodine content or compete for iodine transport, resulting in low iodine uptake by the thyroid. It also inhibits the coupling of iodotyrosine residues to form iodothyronines and inhibits the release of T4 and T3. Lithium has direct actions on parathyroid glands by antagonizing the calcium sensing receptor, which may induce hypercalcemia or even hyperparathyroidism, requiring surgery in some cases. Furthermore, it inhibits the expression of aquaporins, mainly aquaporin 2, in the renal collecting tubule by unknown mechanisms leading to nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. This adverse effect is usually reversible after drug withdrawal. However, some patients may present irreversible kidney damage due to chronic interstitial nephropathy.