Severity: Warning
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Filename: drivers/Session_files_driver.php
Line Number: 177
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File: /var/www/html/index.php
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Function: require_once
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Filename: Session/Session.php
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File: /var/www/html/index.php
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Function: require_once
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Message: Undefined array key "choices"
Filename: controllers/Detail.php
Line Number: 249
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File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 249
Function: _error_handler
File: /var/www/html/index.php
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Function: require_once
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Message: Trying to access array offset on value of type null
Filename: controllers/Detail.php
Line Number: 249
Backtrace:
File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 249
Function: _error_handler
File: /var/www/html/index.php
Line: 316
Function: require_once
Severity: Warning
Message: Trying to access array offset on value of type null
Filename: controllers/Detail.php
Line Number: 249
Backtrace:
File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 249
Function: _error_handler
File: /var/www/html/index.php
Line: 316
Function: require_once
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Message: Trying to access array offset on value of type null
Filename: controllers/Detail.php
Line Number: 249
Backtrace:
File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 249
Function: _error_handler
File: /var/www/html/index.php
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Function: require_once
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Message: strpos(): Passing null to parameter #1 ($haystack) of type string is deprecated
Filename: models/Detail_model.php
Line Number: 71
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File: /var/www/html/application/models/Detail_model.php
Line: 71
Function: strpos
File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
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Function: insertAPISummary
File: /var/www/html/index.php
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Function: require_once
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Filename: helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line Number: 8919
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File: /var/www/html/application/helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line: 8919
Function: str_replace
File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 255
Function: formatAIDetailSummary
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Function: require_once
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Message: Undefined array key "choices"
Filename: controllers/Detail.php
Line Number: 256
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File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 256
Function: _error_handler
File: /var/www/html/index.php
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Function: require_once
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Message: Trying to access array offset on value of type null
Filename: controllers/Detail.php
Line Number: 256
Backtrace:
File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 256
Function: _error_handler
File: /var/www/html/index.php
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Function: require_once
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Message: Trying to access array offset on value of type null
Filename: controllers/Detail.php
Line Number: 256
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File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 256
Function: _error_handler
File: /var/www/html/index.php
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Function: require_once
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Message: Undefined array key "usage"
Filename: controllers/Detail.php
Line Number: 257
Backtrace:
File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 257
Function: _error_handler
File: /var/www/html/index.php
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Function: require_once
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Message: Trying to access array offset on value of type null
Filename: controllers/Detail.php
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File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 257
Function: _error_handler
File: /var/www/html/index.php
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Function: require_once
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Message: Undefined array key "usage"
Filename: controllers/Detail.php
Line Number: 258
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File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 258
Function: _error_handler
File: /var/www/html/index.php
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Filename: controllers/Detail.php
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Function: _error_handler
File: /var/www/html/index.php
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Function: require_once
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Filename: controllers/Detail.php
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Function: _error_handler
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Filename: controllers/Detail.php
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Function: require_once
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Message: Undefined array key "usage"
Filename: controllers/Detail.php
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Function: _error_handler
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Filename: controllers/Detail.php
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Function: _error_handler
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Filename: controllers/Detail.php
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File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
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Function: _error_handler
File: /var/www/html/index.php
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Function: require_once
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Message: file_get_contents(https://...@gmail.com&api_key=61f08fa0b96a73de8c900d749fcb997acc09): Failed to open stream: HTTP request failed! HTTP/1.1 429 Too Many Requests
Filename: helpers/my_audit_helper.php
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File: /var/www/html/application/helpers/my_audit_helper.php
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Function: file_get_contents
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Function: simplexml_load_file_from_url
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Function: getPubMedXML
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Function: GetPubMedArticleOutput_2016
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Function: pubMedSearch_Global
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Function: pubMedGetRelatedKeyword
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Function: require_once
Chagas disease is a neglected tropical disease caused by the flagellated protozoa that affects several million people mainly in Latin American countries. Chagas disease has two phases, which are acute and chronic, both separated by an indeterminate time period in which the infected individual is relatively asymptomatic. The acute phase extends for 40-60 days with atypical and mild symptoms; however, about 30% of the infected patients will develop a symptomatic chronic phase, which is characterized by either cardiac, digestive, neurological, or endocrine problems. Cardiomyopathy is the most important and severe result of Chagas disease, which leads to left ventricular systolic dysfunction, heart failure, and sudden cardiac death. Most deaths are due to heart failure (70%) and sudden death (30%) resulting from cardiomyopathy. During the chronic phase, -infected macrophages respond with the production of proinflammatory cytokines and production of superoxide and nitric oxide by the NADPH oxidase 2 (NOX2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) enzymes, respectively. During the chronic phase, myocardial changes are produced as a result of chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, fibrosis, and cell death. The cellular inflammatory response is mainly the result of activation of the NF-B-dependent pathway, which activates gene expression of inflammatory cytokines, leading to progressive tissue damage. The persisting production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is the result of mitochondrial dysfunction in the cardiomyocytes. In this review, we will discuss inflammation and oxidative damage which is produced in the heart during the chronic phase of Chagas disease and recent evidence on the role of macrophages and the production of proinflammatory cytokines during the acute phase and the origin of macrophages/monocytes during the chronic phase of Chagas disease. We will also discuss the contributing factors and mechanisms leading to the chronic inflammation of the cardiac tissue during the chronic phase of the disease as well as the innate and adaptive host immune response. The contribution of genetic factors to the progression of the chronic inflammatory cardiomyopathy of chronic Chagas disease is also discussed. The secreted extracellular vesicles (exosomes) produced for both and infected host cells can play key roles in the host immune response, and those roles are described. Lastly, we describe potential treatments to attenuate the chronic inflammation of the cardiac tissue, designed to improve heart function in chagasic patients.
Download full-text PDF |
Source |
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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8718323 | PMC |
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/4993452 | DOI Listing |
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