Qualitative Histopathological Classification of Primary Bone Tumors Using Deep Learning: A Pilot Study.

Background: Histopathological diagnosis of bone tumors is challenging for pathologists. We aim to classify bone tumors histopathologically in terms of aggressiveness using deep learning (DL) and compare performance with pathologists.

Methods: A total of 427 pathological slides of bone tumors were produced and scanned as whole slide imaging (WSI). Tumor area of WSI was annotated by pathologists and cropped into 716,838 image patches of 256 × 256 pixels for training. After six DL models were trained and validated in patch level, performance was evaluated on testing dataset for binary classification (benign . non-benign) and ternary classification (benign . intermediate . malignant) in patch-level and slide-level prediction. The performance of four pathologists with different experiences was compared to the best-performing models. The gradient-weighted class activation mapping was used to visualize patch's important area.

Results: VGG-16 and Inception V3 performed better than other models in patch-level binary and ternary classification. For slide-level prediction, VGG-16 and Inception V3 had area under curve of 0.962 and 0.971 for binary classification and Cohen's kappa score (CKS) of 0.731 and 0.802 for ternary classification. The senior pathologist had CKS of 0.685 comparable to both models ( = 0.688 and = 0.287) while attending and junior pathologists showed lower CKS than the best model (each < 0.05). Visualization showed that the DL model depended on pathological features to make predictions.

Conclusion: DL can effectively classify bone tumors histopathologically in terms of aggressiveness with performance similar to senior pathologists. Our results are promising and would help expedite the future application of DL-assisted histopathological diagnosis for bone tumors.