The Role of TGF- Signaling Pathways in Cancer and Its Potential as a Therapeutic Target.

The transforming growth factor- (TGF-) signaling pathway mediates various biological functions, and its dysregulation is closely related to the occurrence of malignant tumors. However, the role of TGF- signaling in tumorigenesis and development is complex and contradictory. On the one hand, TGF- signaling can exert antitumor effects by inhibiting proliferation or inducing apoptosis of cancer cells. On the other hand, TGF- signaling may mediate oncogene effects by promoting metastasis, angiogenesis, and immune escape. This review summarizes the recent findings on molecular mechanisms of TGF- signaling. Specifically, this review evaluates TGF-'s therapeutic potential as a target by the following perspectives: ligands, receptors, and downstream signaling. We hope this review can trigger new ideas to improve the current clinical strategies to treat tumors related to the TGF- signaling pathway.