Biomarkers of Autophagy.

Biomarkers (short for biological markers) are biological measures of a biological state. Autophagy biomarkers play an important role as an indicator of autophagy during normal physiological processes, pathogenic processes or pharmacological responses to drugs. In this chapter, some biomarkers of different types of autophagy, including macroautophagy, selective autophagy, chaperone-mediated autophagy, and microautophagy, as well as the lysosomal biomarkers are introduced. The described biomarkers may be used to detect the level of autophagy in cells or tissues in a dynamic, real-time, and quantitative manner. However, each biomarker has its specific significance and limitation. Therefore, the analysis of the autophagy level in cells or tissues through the detection of autophagy biomarkers should be carried out carefully.