Evolution and diversity of the angiosperm anther: trends in function and development.

Anther development and dehiscence is considered from an evolutionary perspective to identify drivers for differentiation, functional conservation and to identify key questions for future male reproduction research. Development of viable pollen and its timely release from the anther are essential for fertilisation of angiosperm flowers. The formation and subsequent dehiscence of the anther are under tight regulatory control, and these processes are remarkably conserved throughout the diverse families of the angiosperm clade. Anther development is a complex process, which requires timely formation and communication between the multiple somatic anther cell layers (the epidermis, endothecium, middle layer and tapetum) and the developing pollen. These layers go through regulated development and selective degeneration to facilitate the formation and ultimate release of the pollen grains. Insight into the evolution and divergence of anther development and dehiscence, especially between monocots and dicots, is driving greater understanding of the male reproductive process and increased, resilient crop yields. This review focuses on anther structure from an evolutionary perspective by highlighting their diversity across plant species. We summarise new findings that illustrate the complexities of anther development and evaluate how they challenge established models of anther form and function, and how they may help to deliver future sustainable crop yields.