Extracellular Vesicles: A Story of Toxicity and the Stress of 2020.

generates and releases extracellular vesicles (EVs) that package cytosolic, cell-wall associated, and membrane proteins, as well as glycopolymers and exoproteins, including alpha hemolysin, leukocidins, phenol-soluble modulins, superantigens, and enzymes. EVs, but not EVs from pore-forming toxin-deficient strains, were cytolytic for a variety of mammalian cell types, but EV internalization was not essential for cytotoxicity. Because is subject to various environmental stresses during its encounters with the host during infection, we assessed how these exposures affected EV production in vitro. Staphylococci grown at did not differ in 30 cultivated in the presence of oxidative stress, in iron-limited media, or with subinhibitory concentrations of ethanol, showed greater EV production as determined by protein yield and quantitative immunoblots. In contrast, hyperosmotic stress or subinhibitory concentrations of erythromycin reduced EV yield. EVs represent a novel secretory system that is affected by a variety of stress responses and allows the delivery of biologically active pore-forming toxins and other virulence determinants to host cells.