Molecular Epidemiology of Carbapenemases in from Humans, Animals, Food and the Environment.

The Enterobacteriales order consists of seven families including , Erwiniaceae, Pectobacteriaceae, Yersiniaceae, Hafniaceae, Morganellaceae, and Budviciaceae and 60 genera encompassing over 250 species. The is currently considered as the most taxonomically diverse among all seven recognized families. The emergence of carbapenem resistance (CR) in caused by hydrolytic enzymes called carbapenemases has become a major concern worldwide. Carbapenem-resistant (CRE) isolates have been reported not only in nosocomial and community-acquired pathogens but also in food-producing animals, companion animals, and the environment. The reported carbapenemases in from different sources belong to the Ambler class A (), class B (, , ), and class D () β-lactamases. The carbapenem encoding genes are often located on plasmids or associated with various mobile genetic elements (MGEs) like transposons and integrons, which contribute significantly to their spread. These genes are most of the time associated with other antimicrobial resistance genes such as other β-lactamases, as well as aminoglycosides and fluoroquinolones resistance genes leading to multidrug resistance phenotypes. Control strategies to prevent infections due to CRE and their dissemination in human, animal and food have become necessary. Several factors involved in the emergence of CRE have been described. This review mainly focuses on the molecular epidemiology of carbapenemases in members of family from humans, animals, food and the environment.