Clinical Pathology, Immunopathology and Advanced Vaccine Technology in Bovine Theileriosis: A Review.

Theileriosis is a blood piroplasmic disease that adversely affects the livestock industry, especially in tropical and sub-tropical countries. It is caused by haemoprotozoan of the genus, transmitted by hard ticks and which possesses a complex life cycle. The clinical course of the disease ranges from benign to lethal, but subclinical infections can occur depending on the infecting species. The main clinical and clinicopathological manifestations of acute disease include fever, lymphadenopathy, anorexia and severe loss of condition, conjunctivitis, and pale mucous membranes that are associated with -induced immune-mediated haemolytic anaemia and/or non-regenerative anaemia. Additionally, jaundice, increases in hepatic enzymes, and variable leukocyte count changes are seen. and induce an incomplete transformation of lymphoid and myeloid cell lineages, and these cells possess certain phenotypes of cancer cells. Pathogenic genotypes of have been recently associated with severe production losses in Southeast Asia and some parts of Europe. The infection and treatment method (ITM) is currently used in the control and prevention of infection, and recombinant vaccines are still under evaluation. The use of gene gun immunization against infection has been recently evaluated. This review, therefore, provides an overview of the clinicopathological and immunopathological profiles of -infected cattle and focus on DNA vaccines consisting of plasmid DNA with genes of interest, molecular adjuvants, and chitosan as the most promising next-generation vaccine against bovine theileriosis.