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The violation-of-expectation paradigm: A conceptual overview.
Psychol Rev
April 2024
Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
For over 35 years, the violation-of-expectation paradigm has been used to study the development of expectations in the first 3 years of life. A wide range of expectations has been examined, including physical, psychological, sociomoral, biological, numerical, statistical, probabilistic, and linguistic expectations. Surprisingly, despite the paradigm's widespread use and the many seminal findings it has contributed to psychological science, so far no one has tried to provide a detailed and in-depth conceptual overview of the paradigm.
View Article and Find Full Text PDFStable individual differences in infants' responses to violations of intuitive physics.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
July 2021
Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218.
Infants look longer at impossible or unlikely events than at possible events. While these responses to expectancy violations have been critical for understanding early cognition, interpreting them is challenging because infants' responses are highly variable. This variability has been treated as an unavoidable nuisance inherent to infant research.
View Article and Find Full Text PDFBreaking the rules: do infants have a true understanding of false belief?
Br J Dev Psychol
March 2012
Concordia University, Montréal, Québec, Canada.
It has been suggested that infants' performance on the false belief task can be explained by the use of behavioural rules. To test this hypothesis, 18-month-old infants were trained to learn the new rule that an object that disappeared in location A could be found in location B. Infants were then administered a false belief task based on the violation of expectation (VOE) paradigm, an intention understanding task, and a modified detour-reaching task.
View Article and Find Full Text PDFReasoning about a hidden object after a delay: evidence for robust representations in 5-month-old infants.
Cognition
July 2003
Department of Psychology, University of Illinois, 603 E. Daniel, Champaign, IL 61820, USA.
The present research examined two alternative interpretations of violation-of-expectation findings that young infants can represent hidden objects. One interpretation is that, when watching an event in which an object becomes hidden behind another object, infants form a prediction about the event's outcome while both objects are still visible, and then check whether this prediction was accurate. The other interpretation is that infants' initial representations of hidden objects are weak and short-lived and as such sufficient for success in most violation-of-expectation tasks (as objects are typically hidden for only a few seconds at a time), but not more challenging tasks.
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