Responses of ammonia volatilization from rice paddy soil to application of wood vinegar alone or combined with biochar.

Wood vinegar (WV) was applied alone or combined with biochar (BC) to observe their efficiency on suppressing the ammonia (NH) volatilization from rice paddy soil. Five treatments, i.e., control (240 kg N ha applied in urea), WV-5 and WV-10 (240 kg N ha plus 5 and 10 t WV ha, respectively), and their counterparts WV-5-BC and WV-10-BC (WV-5 and WV-10 plus 7 t BC ha), were evaluated by a soil columns experiment. The N fertilizer was split applied as basal and two supplementary fertilizations (named BF, SF1 and SF2, respectively). The results showed that WV-5 treatment increased rice grain yield up to 11.2% compared to the control. Compared with the control, four WV-amended treatments, exhibited lower pH values of the floodwater (7.94-8.18 vs 8.47 and 7.85-7.91 vs 7.98) and the topsoil (6.52-6.76 vs 6.82 and 6.82-6.92 vs 6.99) during the BF and SF1 periods. Both WV-5 and WV-10 increased the NH-N contents of topsoil by 10.9-17.8% and 16.1-36.2% after BF and SF1, respectively, than control treatment. Additionally, the floodwater of the WV-amended treatments had higher NH-N concentration than control during the first three days after N fertilization, which can be attributed to the stimulating effect of WV on soil urease enzyme activity. WV did not effectively reduce NH volatilization as hypothesized. Interestingly, four WV-amended had relatively reduced the yield-scale NH volatilization by 13.6% than the control. It is suggested that WV needs to be applied with BC at a moderate rate to achieve optimum rice yield and mitigate NH volatilization.