in UK free-living wildfowl (Anatidae): surveillance, histopathology and first molecular characterisation.

Background: Reports from UK hunters of 'rice grains' in muscles of shot wildfowl (Anatidae) coincided temporally with the finding of sarcocystosis in a number of ducks found as part of the Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust long-term general surveillance of found dead waterbirds. has also been relatively recently confirmed in wildfowl in north-eastern Europe.

Methods: This study uses four approaches to investigate UK wildfowl sarcocystosis: first, through a hunter questionnaire that captured historical case data; secondly, through an online reporting system; thirdly, DNA sequencing to characterise UK cases; and fourthly, histological myopathy assessment of infected pectoral muscle.

Results: Our questionnaire results suggest infection is widely distributed throughout the UK and observed in 10 Anatidae species, reported cases increased since the 2010/2011 shooting season, with the online reporting system reflecting this increase. DNA sequencing (18S rRNA gene and internal transcribed spacer-1 region) of UK isolates confirmed in the five dabbling duck host species tested and the associated histopathological myopathy is described.

Conclusion: This work highlights an emerging issue to European wildfowl species and provides much opportunity for further research, including the impacts of and the described myopathy on host health, fitness and survival.