This study used a behavioural ecological approach by observing whether solitary and social smoking varied as a function of gender and stress. In sample 1 ( = 414), the result was consistent with the tend-and-befriend hypothesis, in that more female smokers were observed to engage in social smoking during high stress. When the number of smokers observed by stress condition was controlled for in sample 2 ( = 587), this effect was non-significant. Effect sizes were small for both samples. Discrepancies with previous research suggest that self-reported data might overestimate the interaction of various psychosocial factors on smoking behaviours.
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