From cell culture to cynomolgus macaque: infection models show lineage-specific virulence potential of .

is an obligate intracellular pathogen that causes the zoonotic disease Q fever in humans, which can occur in either an acute or a chronic form with serious complications. The bacterium has a wide host range, including unicellular organisms, invertebrates, birds and mammals, with livestock representing the most significant reservoir for human infections. Cell culture models have been used to decipher the intracellular lifestyle of , and several infection models, including invertebrates, rodents and non-human primates, are being used to investigate host-pathogen interactions and to identify bacterial virulence factors and vaccine candidates. However, none of the models replicate all aspects of human disease. Furthermore, it is becoming evident that isolates belonging to different lineages exhibit differences in their virulence in these models. Here, we compare the advantages and disadvantages of commonly used infection models and summarize currently available data for lineage-specific virulence.