Bulk nanobubbles in the mineral and environmental areas: Updating research and applications.

In the last decade, the research with bulk nanobubbles (ultrafine bubbles with a diameter <1 μm, according to ISO 20480-1:2017) has been rapidly increasing in the academic and industrial environments. Nowadays, there are many applications reported in the literature, with several patents, procedures, and techniques on nanobubbles generation and an evergrowing research and many applications. Yet, most of those publications reporting bulk nanobubbles generation devices, do not bring information on measurements of size distribution or bubbles concentration (if nanobubbles). Further, there is a problem of scale and many of these products are small bench discontinuous rigs difficult to scale up, which might serve small scale purposes, but are not able for treating high flow-rate wastewaters or minerals pulps at industrial scale. These nanometric bubbles present interesting and peculiar properties such as high surface area per volume unit, high stability and longevity, surface charge in water and the ability to aggregate hydrophobic particles. These findings demonstrate their high potential for applications in many technological areas, which occur not only as isolated bubbles but also jointly with micro (~ 1-100 μm diameter) and/or macrobubbles (~100 μm - 2 mm diameter). This paper reviews the evolution of basic research on nanobubbles, the challenges concerning generation and stability and their applications in the mineral (flotation) and environmental areas (treatment of water and wastewaters or remediation of contaminated environments). Herein, because the importance in engineering, as a whole, most of the studies are based on the nanobubbles generated by depressurisation/hydrodynamic cavitation of the air-saturated water in flow constrictors (venturi, needle valves). In the mineral area, they appear to be responsible for increasing the recovery and flotation kinetics of fine (<74 μm) and ultrafine (<13 μm) particles at lower frother and collector dosages. In the environmental area, nanobubbles have been reported to enhance the removal of a variety of pollutants (emulsified oil, colloidal solids, organic/inorganic precipitates, ions) by flotation associated with bigger bubbles. More, the application of isolated nanobubbles on the removal of residual pollutants, such as amine and oil (both as flocs) were reported. Also, the use of ozone and oxygen nanobubbles has been studied for the remediation/decontamination of soil and aquatic ecosystems and for the oxidation of emerging pollutants in water and wastewater treatment. The future of nanobubbles in flotation separation research is highly promising; operating costs of the different forms of nanobubbles generation and bench studies should be validated through pilot and real scale with the continuous injection of these bubbles.