Contamination and Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in the Soil of Major Cities in Mongolia.

Using the case of Ulaanbaatar, Erdenet, and Darkhan cities from Mongolia, the study aimed to assess the contamination level and health risk assessment of heavy metals (As, Cr, Pb, Ni, and Zn) in urban soil. A total of 78 samples was collected from a variety of functional areas. The geoaccumulation index (I) and integrated pollution index (IPI) were used in pollution assessment, while the health risk was scored using a hazard quotient () and health index (HI) for non-carcinogenic heavy metals, as well as a lifetime average daily dose () for carcinogenic heavy metals. The results show that the concentration of heavy metals in the soil samples taken from Darkhan city, which presented "uncontaminated" values in terms of I for all metals, was relatively lower than other cities within the contamination assessment. Furthermore, the I value signified "uncontimated to heavily contaminated" soil in the Ulaanbaatar and Erdenet cities. Typically, as for the IPI that observed similar trends with I, the mean IPI values in Ulaanbaatar, Erdenet, and Darkhan were 1.33 (moderate level of pollution), 1.83 (moderate level of pollution), and 0.94 (low level of pollution), respectively. In terms of the assessment of potential health risk, there was a particular or different level of ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation exposure pathway for human health. Among these three different pathways, the ingestion was estimated by the main contributor for health risk. Each value of HQ and HI indicated that soil heavy metals of studied cities were at a safe level (<1) or had the absence of a significant health risk there. In addition, the potential health risk for children was greater than for adults, where heavy metal values of HI for children had a high value compared to adults. We estimated carcinogenic risks through the inhalation exposure, and as a result, there were no significant risks for human health in the studied cities from three elements (As, Cr, and Ni).