Effects of antibiotics on the transformation of nitrate and the associated NO release in paddy fields are obscure. Using soil slurry experiments combined with N tracer techniques, the influence of tetracycline and sulfamethazine (applied alone and in combination) on the denitrification, anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox), dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA) and NO release rates in the paddy soil were investigated, while genes related to nitrate reduction and antibiotic resistance were quantified to explore the microbial mechanisms behind the antibiotics' effects. The potential rates of denitrification, anammox, and DNRA were significantly (p < 0.05) reduced, which were mainly attributed to the inhibitory effects of the antibiotics on nitrate-reducing microbes. However, the NO release rates were significantly (p < 0.05) stimulated by the antibiotic treatments (0.6-6000 μg kg soil dry weight), which were caused by the different inhibition effects of antibiotics on NO production and NO reduction as suggest by the changes in abundance of nirS (nitrite reduction step) and nosZ (NO reduction to N step) genes. Antibiotic resistance gene (tetA, tetG, sulI, and sulIII) abundances were significantly (p < 0.05) increased under high antibiotic exposure concentrations (>600 μg kg soil dry weight). Our results suggest that the widespread occurrence of antibiotics in paddy soils may pose significant eco-environmental risks (nitrate accumulation and greenhouse effects) by altering nitrate transformation processes.
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