Is palmitate truly proinflammatory? Experimental confounders and context-specificity.

Based primarily on cell culture results, saturated fatty acids (SFAs) are proposed to promote inflammation and contribute to metabolic dysfunction through Toll-like receptor activation. Studies are often complicated by a requirement for carriers (e.g., BSA) or solvents (e.g., ethanol) to increase SFA solubility. To ascertain whether these factors influence interpretations of SFA-associated inflammation activity, we measured responses of RAW264.7 monocyte/macrophages and CC myotubes to various BSA, ethanol, and cyclodextrin (alternative FA carrier) conditions. Fatty acid-free, low-endotoxin BSA preparations (0.33% to 2% wt/vol) activated whereas 0.5-1.0% ethanol inhibited RAW264.7 TNFα release. Ethanol modestly increased IL-6 secretion in CC myotubes. Cyclodextrins (0.3-6.0 mM) were tested as alternative carriers of palmitate, but their usefulness was limited due to toxicity and solubility issues. Using a lower-inflammation BSA source and no ethanol, ∼24-h sodium palmitate treatment (≤600 µM) failed to trigger RAW264.7 TNFα release and, in fact, significantly dampened BSA-induced inflammation by >50%. In CC myotubes, only high palmitate concentrations (500-600 µM) elicited IL-6 secretion (>2.5-fold increase). Acute palmitate (200 or 500 µM) treatment did not activate MAP kinase pathways above that of fresh BSA-containing media alone in either cell type. These results highlight the importance of experimental conditions in studies exploring SFA inflammation effects. The limited (or even anti-inflammatory) effects of palmitate that we observed indicate that immunomodulatory effects of SFAs are context-specific. Thus, caution is needed when interpreting the literature related to putative proinflammatory effects of SFA.