Hydrogen peroxide extracellular concentration in the ventrolateral medulla and its increase in response to hypoxia in vitro: Possible role of microglia.

Hydrogen peroxide (HO) is a messenger involved in both damaging neuroinflammatory responses and physiological cell communication. The ventrolateral medulla, which regulates several vital functions including breathing and blood pressure, is highly influenced by hydrogen peroxide, whose extracellular levels could be determined by hypoxia and microglial activity, both of which modulate ventrolateral medulla function. Therefore, in this study we aimed to test whether different patterns of hypoxia and/or putative microglial modulators change extracellular hydrogen peroxide in the ventrolateral medulla by using an enzymatic reactor online sensing procedure specifically designed for this purpose. With this new technique, we detected extracellular levels of hydrogen peroxide in the ventrolateral medulla in vitro, which spontaneously fluctuated. These fluctuations are reduced by minocycline, a putative microglial inhibitor, and by the microglial toxin liposomal clodronate. Suitably, lipopolysaccharide increases extracellular hydrogen peroxide, while minocycline and liposomal clodronate reduce this increase. Application of blue light to slices with microglia expressing channelrhodopsin-2 also increases extracellular hydrogen peroxide. Moreover, long-lasting and intermittent hypoxia (as well as subsequent reoxygenation) increase extracellular hydrogen peroxide to similar levels, which is partially prevented by minocycline. The effect of long-lasting hypoxia was reproduced in vivo. Overall, our data show that changes in oxygen concentration, and possibly microglial function, modulate extracellular HO levels in the ventrolateral medulla, which could influence the function of this neural circuit under normal and pathological conditions related to inflammation and/or hypoxia.