Recolonizing gray wolves increase parasite infection risk in their prey.

The recent recolonization of Central Europe by the European gray wolf () provides an opportunity to study the dynamics of parasite transmission for cases when a definitive host returns after a phase of local extinction. We investigated whether a newly established wolf population increased the prevalence of those parasites in ungulate intermediate hosts representing wolf prey, whether some parasite species are particularly well adapted to wolves, and the potential basis for such adaptations. We recorded species richness in wolves and prevalence in ungulates harvested in study sites with and without permanent wolf presence in Germany using microscopy and DNA metabarcoding. prevalence in red deer () was significantly higher in wolf areas (79.7%) than in control areas (26.3%) but not in roe deer () (97.2% vs. 90.4%) or wild boar () (82.8% vs. 64.9%). Of 11 species, and occurred more often in wolves than expected from the infection patterns of ungulate prey. Both species showed a higher increase in prevalence in ungulates in wolf areas than other species, suggesting that they are particularly well adapted to wolves, and are examples of "wolf specialists". species richness in wolves was significantly higher in pups than in adults. "Wolf specialists" persisted during wolf maturation. The results of this study demonstrate that (1) predator-prey interactions influence parasite prevalence, if both predator and prey are part of the parasite life cycle, (2) mesopredators do not necessarily replace the apex predator in parasite transmission dynamics for particular parasites of which the apex predator is the definitive host, even if meso- and apex predators were from the same taxonomic family (here: Canidae, e.g., red foxes ), and (3) age-dependent immune maturation contributes to the control of protozoan infection in wolves.