The long and the short of it - a perspective on peptidergic regulation of circuits and behaviour.

Neuropeptides are the most diverse class of chemical modulators in nervous systems. They contribute to extensive modulation of circuit activity and have profound influences on animal physiology. Studies on invertebrate model organisms, including the fruit fly and the nematode , have enabled the genetic manipulation of peptidergic signalling, contributing to an understanding of how neuropeptides pattern the output of neural circuits to underpin behavioural adaptation. Electrophysiological and pharmacological analyses of well-defined microcircuits, such as the crustacean stomatogastric ganglion, have provided detailed insights into neuropeptide functions at a cellular and circuit level. These approaches can be increasingly applied in the mammalian brain by focusing on circuits with a defined and identifiable sub-population of neurons. Functional analyses of neuropeptide systems have been underpinned by systematic studies to map peptidergic networks. Here, we review the general principles and mechanistic insights that have emerged from these studies. We also highlight some of the challenges that remain for furthering our understanding of the functional relevance of peptidergic modulation.