Cell Signaling with Extracellular Thioredoxin and Thioredoxin-Like Proteins: Insight into Their Mechanisms of Action.

Thioredoxins are small thiol-oxidoreductase enzymes that control cellular redox homeostasis. Paradoxically, human thioredoxin (TXN1) was first identified as the adult T cell leukemia-derived factor (ADF), a secreted protein. ADF has been implicated in a wide variety of cell-to-cell communication systems acting as a cytokine or a chemokine. TRX80 is a truncated TXN1 protein with cytokine activity. The unconventional secretion mechanism of these extracellular thioredoxins is unknown. The thioredoxin system is relying on glucose metabolism through the pentose phosphate pathway that provides reducing power in the form of NADPH, the cofactor of thioredoxin reductase (TXNRD). While a complete extracellular TXN system is present in the blood in the form of circulating TXN1 and TXNDR1, the source of extracellular NADPH remains a mystery. In the absence of redox regenerating capacity, extracellular thioredoxins may rather be prooxidant agents. Rod-derived cone viability factor (RdCVF) is the product of intron retention of the nucleoredoxin-like 1 () gene, a secreted truncated thioredoxin-like protein. The other product encoded by the gene, RdCVFL, is an enzymatically active thioredoxin. This is a very singular example of positive feedback of a superthioredoxin system encoded by a single gene likely emerging during evolution from metabolic constraints on redox signaling.