Research on endocrine disruptors (EDs) developed from numerous disciplines. In this concert of disciplines, epidemiology is central to inform on the relevance for humans of mechanisms and dose-response functions identified in animals, to characterize the health impact (number of attributable disease cases), the cost associated with ED exposure, and the efficiency of the measures taken to limit exposure. Here, we present epidemiological tools to draw valid inference regarding effects of potential EDs. Epidemiology is generally observational, requiring care to control confounding bias. Many potential EDs have a short biological half-life; approaches relying on repeated biospecimens sampling allow limiting exposure misclassification and the resulting bias. For non-persistent compounds, couple-child cohorts are a central study design. Cohorts can now rely on molecular biology approaches to characterize exposures and intermediate pathways, which corresponds to the advent of molecular epidemiology and allows stronger interactions between epidemiology, toxicology, and molecular epidemiology to characterize the health effects of EDs.
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