Aerobic scope in chicken embryos.

We investigated the aerobic scope of chicken embryos, that is, the margin of increase of oxygen consumption ( [Formula: see text] ) above its normal value. [Formula: see text] was measured by an open-flow methodology at embryonic ages E3, E7, E11, E15, E19 and at E20 at the internal (IP) and external pipping (EP) phases, at the normal incubation temperature (Ta=38°C), in hypothermia (Ta=30°C) and in hyperthermia (Ta=41 and 44°C). In the cold, Q averaged ~2 at all ages, except in IP and EP when lower values (~1.5) indicated some degree of thermogenesis. In hyperthermia (38-44°C) Q was between 1 and 1.4. Hyperthermia had no significant effects on [Formula: see text] whether the results combined all ages or considered individual age groups, except in IP (in which [Formula: see text] increased 8% with 44°C) and EP embryos (+13%). After opening the air cell, which exposed the embryo to a higher O pressure, hyperthermic [Formula: see text] was significantly higher than in normothermia in E19 (+13%), IP (+22%) and EP embryos (+22%). We conclude that in chicken embryos throughout most of incubation neither heat nor oxygen availability limits the normal (normoxic-normothermic) values of [Formula: see text] . Only close to hatching O-diffusion represents a limiting factor to the embryo's [Formula: see text] . Hence, embryos differ from postnatal animals for a nearly absent aerobic scope, presumably because their major sources of energy expenditure (growth and tissue maintenance) are constantly maximized.