Sex-specific effects of low-dose gestational estradiol-17β exposure on bone development in porcine offspring.

Estrogens are important for the bone development and health. Exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals during the early development has been shown to affect the bone phenotype later in life. Several studies have been performed in rodents, while in larger animals that are important to bridge the gap to humans there is a paucity of data. To this end, the pig as large animal model was used in the present study to assess the influence of gestational estradiol-17β (E2) exposure on the bone development of the prepubertal and adult offspring. Two low doses (0.05 and 10μg E2/kg body weight) referring to the 'acceptable daily intake' (ADI) and the 'no observed effect level' (NOEL) as stated for humans, and a high-dose (1000μg E2/kg body weight), respectively, were fed to the sows every day from insemination until delivery. In the male prepubertal offspring, the ADI dose group had a lower strength strain index (p=0.002) at the proximal tibia compared to controls, which was determined by peripheral quantitative computed tomography. Prepubertal females were not significantly affected. However, there was a higher cortical cross-sectional area (CSA) (p=0.03) and total CSA (p=0.02) at the femur midpoint in the adult female offspring of the NOEL dose group as measured by computed tomography. These effects were independent from plasma hormone concentrations (leptin, IGF1, estrogens), which remained unaltered. Overall, sex-specific effects on bone development and non-monotonic dose responses were observed. These results substantiate the high sensitivity of developing organisms to exogenous estrogens.