Control of arousal through neuropeptide afferents of the locus coeruleus.

The locus coeruleus-norepinephine (LC-NE) system is implicated in mediating several aspects of arousal. Alterations in LC neuronal discharge is associated with distinct changes in behavior, cognition, sensory processing and regulation of the sleep-wake cycle. Changes in LC output and subsequent release of NE in target brain regions help adjust arousal state to respond appropriately to environmental conditions and behavioral circumstances. One way in which LC activity is controlled is through release of endogenous neuropeptides. Based on the sleep-wake cycle and environmental cues specific neuropeptide afferent systems are activated, innervating the LC. These neuropeptides include: corticotropin releasing factor (CRF), orexin (ORX), endogenous opioids, substance P (SP), melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), neuropeptide Y (NPY) and somatostatin (SS). This review summarizes studies examining the neuroanatomical projections of these neuropeptides, their receptors in the LC, the actions on LC neurons and downstream NE release, as well as the behavioral and cognitive effects associated individual neuropeptide-mediated innervation of the LC. Finally, the relationship between individual neuropeptides, the LC-NE system and various clinical disorders is discussed, providing evidence for possible therapeutic targets for treatment of several arousal- and stress-related disorders. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Noradrenergic System.