Cortical muscle control of spontaneous movements in human neonates.

Anatomical studies show the existence of corticomotor neuronal projections to the spinal cord before birth, but whether the primary motor cortex drives muscle activity in neonatal 'spontaneous' movements is unclear. To investigate this issue, we calculated corticomuscular coherence (CMC) and Granger causality in human neonates. CMC is widely used as an index of functional connectivity between the primary motor cortex and limb muscles, and Granger causality is used across many fields of science to detect the direction of coherence. To calculate CMC and Granger causality, we used electroencephalography (EEG) to measure activity over the cortical region that governs leg muscles, and surface electromyography (EMG) over the right and left tibialis anterior muscles, in 15 healthy term and preterm neonates, during spontaneous movements without any external stimulation. We found that 17 leg muscles (10 right, seven left) in 12 neonates showed significant CMC, whose magnitude significantly correlated with postnatal age only in the beta frequency band. Further analysis revealed Granger causal drive from EEG to EMG in 14 leg muscles. Our findings suggest that the primary motor cortex drives muscle activity when neonates move their limbs. Moreover, the positive correlation between CMC magnitude and postnatal age suggests that corticomuscular communication begins to develop during the neonatal stage. This process may facilitate sensory-motor integration and activity-dependent development.