Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) engaged in a series of computerized tasks modeled on billiards and arcade games in order to determine their degree of preference for scenarios in which food rewards were contingent on their actions, as opposed to those in which outcomes appeared externally caused. Throughout these tasks, subjects showed a consistent preference for "agentic control," a state in which goal-directed behavior is directly responsible for motivating outcomes. Other factors like the frequency and timing of reward deliveries were precisely controlled and did not explain observed preferences.
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