Omnia tempus habent: habitat-specific differences in olfactory learning and decision making in parasitic wasps.

Olfactory learning is generally involved in the host-finding process in parasitic wasps. But the reliability of odour cues for predicting future host-finding success depends on the rate at which host-substrate associations are subject to variation within and between parasitoid generations. Since learning comes at physiological costs, we can expect animals to learn in a way that optimizes costs and benefits. The parasitic wasp Venturia canescens occurs in two reproductive modes that forage in different environments. We tested populations from both habitat types for learning rate, memory duration and speed of decision making and found considerable differences. Thelytokous wasps live in habitats with relatively stable host-substrate associations and might encounter hosts at a high rate. They showed a preference for a new odour after only a single experience. However, the response faded within 24 h, even with spaced learning experiences. Arrhenotokous wasps live in habitats where hosts are scarce and are likely to be found on a variety of substrates. Like the thelytokous ones, arrhenotokous wasps learned a new odour after a single experience, but seemingly took long for information processing: one and four hours after an experience, a speed-accuracy trade-off became visible, while 24 h after the experience, wasps decided quickly and in accordance with what they had learned. In addition, these wasps are likely to have developed an aversion response towards Geraniol in the CleanAir experiment. We conclude that the respective cognitive pattern can be attributed to the ecological circumstances of the wasp's natural habitat.