Severity: Warning
Message: file_get_contents(https://...@gmail.com&api_key=61f08fa0b96a73de8c900d749fcb997acc09): Failed to open stream: HTTP request failed! HTTP/1.1 429 Too Many Requests
Filename: helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line Number: 143
Backtrace:
File: /var/www/html/application/helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line: 143
Function: file_get_contents
File: /var/www/html/application/helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line: 209
Function: simplexml_load_file_from_url
File: /var/www/html/application/helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line: 994
Function: getPubMedXML
File: /var/www/html/application/helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line: 3134
Function: GetPubMedArticleOutput_2016
File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 574
Function: pubMedSearch_Global
File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 488
Function: pubMedGetRelatedKeyword
File: /var/www/html/index.php
Line: 316
Function: require_once
Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS) produced by macrophages are essential for protecting a human body against bacteria and viruses. Micrometer-sized electrodes coated with Pt black have previously been used for selective and sensitive detection of ROS and RNS in biological systems. To determine ROS and RNS inside macrophages, one needs smaller (i.e., nanometer-sized) sensors. In this article, the methodologies have been extended to the fabrication and characterization of Pt/Pt black nanoelectrodes. Electrodes with the metal surface flush with glass insulator, most suitable for quantitative voltammetric experiments, were fabricated by electrodeposition of Pt black inside an etched nanocavity under the atomic force microscope control. Despite a nanometer-scale radius, the true surface area of Pt electrodes was sufficiently large to yield stable and reproducible responses to ROS and RNS in vitro. The prepared nanoprobes were used to penetrate cells and detect ROS and RNS inside macrophages. Weak and very short leaks of ROS/RNS from the vacuoles into the cytoplasm were detected, which a macrophage is equipped to clean within a couple of seconds, while higher intensity oxidative bursts due to the emptying of vacuoles outside persist on the time scale of tens of seconds.
Download full-text PDF |
Source |
---|---|
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3406879 | PMC |
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1201552109 | DOI Listing |
Enter search terms and have AI summaries delivered each week - change queries or unsubscribe any time!