Advanced diagnostic approaches and current management of avian hepatic disorders.

Although the diagnosis of liver disease is common in avian patients, it is often based on subjective or inadequate evidence. Diagnosis of the inciting cause, determination of the severity of the tissue damage, and assessment of the remaining hepatobiliary function can be clinically challenging. A basic review of avian normal hepatic anatomy and function is included in this article as a foundation for further discussion of testing methods used to diagnose liver disease. Interpretation of abnormalities noted on the physical examination, clinical pathologic testing, and imaging studies in a patient with hepatic dysfunction are presented, and the methods of obtaining a hepatic biopsy are discussed. Therapies targeted at treating secondary complications of hepatic dysfunction and at supporting hepatocellular function and regeneration are also reviewed.