Severity: Warning
Message: fopen(/var/lib/php/sessions/ci_session2uaa2q7ajvlm0i55kuqd90pp8u4c2q3k): Failed to open stream: No space left on device
Filename: drivers/Session_files_driver.php
Line Number: 177
Backtrace:
File: /var/www/html/index.php
Line: 316
Function: require_once
Severity: Warning
Message: session_start(): Failed to read session data: user (path: /var/lib/php/sessions)
Filename: Session/Session.php
Line Number: 137
Backtrace:
File: /var/www/html/index.php
Line: 316
Function: require_once
Severity: Warning
Message: file_get_contents(https://...@gmail.com&api_key=61f08fa0b96a73de8c900d749fcb997acc09&a=1): Failed to open stream: HTTP request failed! HTTP/1.1 429 Too Many Requests
Filename: helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line Number: 197
Backtrace:
File: /var/www/html/application/helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line: 197
Function: file_get_contents
File: /var/www/html/application/helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line: 271
Function: simplexml_load_file_from_url
File: /var/www/html/application/helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line: 3145
Function: getPubMedXML
File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 575
Function: pubMedSearch_Global
File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 489
Function: pubMedGetRelatedKeyword
File: /var/www/html/index.php
Line: 316
Function: require_once
Ghrelin is a 28 amino acid peptide, identified in the stomach of rats and humans, in 1999. It is an endogenous ligand of the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R) that strongly stimulates release of growth hormone at the hypothalamus-pituitary axis. In humans, ghrelin exerts a variety of different endocrine and paracrine actions; from increasing food intake (orexigenic effect) to modulating energy homeostasis. It has been proved that ghrelin affects bone metabolism acting by an autocrine/paracrine mode, independent of GH/IGF-1 axis. Recently, ghrelin was identified in osteoblasts, stimulating proliferation and inhibiting apoptosis. Its expression also was confirmed in rat and human cartilage, being prevalently localized in the proliferative and maturative zone of the epiphyseal growth plate (which further supports the hypothesis of ghrelin's action as a growth factor for chondrocytes). Ghrelin also inhibits prostaglandin and/or leukotriene synthesis. Lately, ghrelin promotes osteogenesis of intramembranous bone and improves the repair of calvarial bone defect in rats in vivo. This review summarizes the effects of ghrelin on bone and cartilage metabolism, analyzes its direct and indirect actions on bone cells, and presents the clinical implication for its use.
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