Smoking and thyroid disease--review of literature.

Smoking has multiple effects on the thyroid gland, which is associated with important clinical implications such as the increased risk and severity of autoimmune thyroid disorders especially Graves disease. The influence of tobacco smoking is mainly associated with pharmacological action of nicotine and also with toxins such as thiocyanate. The present review of the relevant literature concentrates on the effect of smoking on the Graves ophthalmopathy and autoimmune thyroid disorders such as Hashimoto disease. The effect of passive smoking on children and the influence of smoking on foetus are also shown. In contrast, the protective influence of tobacco on the thyroid cancer is also widely noticed. Finally, our study describes observations related to the psychological and legal aspects of smoking.