Severity: Warning
Message: file_get_contents(https://...@gmail.com&api_key=61f08fa0b96a73de8c900d749fcb997acc09): Failed to open stream: HTTP request failed! HTTP/1.1 429 Too Many Requests
Filename: helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line Number: 143
Backtrace:
File: /var/www/html/application/helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line: 143
Function: file_get_contents
File: /var/www/html/application/helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line: 209
Function: simplexml_load_file_from_url
File: /var/www/html/application/helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line: 994
Function: getPubMedXML
File: /var/www/html/application/helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line: 3134
Function: GetPubMedArticleOutput_2016
File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 574
Function: pubMedSearch_Global
File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 488
Function: pubMedGetRelatedKeyword
File: /var/www/html/index.php
Line: 316
Function: require_once
In fish, bacterial pathogens can enter the host by one or more of three different routes: (a) skin, (b) gills and (c) gastrointestinal tract. Bacteria can cross the gastrointestinal lining in three different ways. In undamaged tissue, bacteria can translocate by transcellular or paracellular routes. Alternatively, bacteria can damage the intestinal lining with extracellular enzymes or toxins before entering. Using an in vitro (Ussing chamber) model, this paper describes intestinal cell damage in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) caused by the fish pathogen Aeromonas salmonicida ssp. salmonicida, the causative agent of furunculosis. The in vitro method clearly demonstrated substantial detachment of enterocytes from anterior region of the intestine (foregut) upon exposure to the pathogen. In the hindgut (posterior part of the intestine), little detachment was observed but cellular damage involved microvilli, desmosomes and tight junctions. Based on these findings, we suggest that A. salmonicida may obtain entry to the fish by seriously damaging the intestinal lining. Translocation of bacteria through the foregut (rather than the hindgut) is a more likely infection route for A. salmonicida infections in Atlantic salmon.
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Source |
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00441-004-0934-2 | DOI Listing |
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