Incubation of gradient purified human spermatozoa, which are routinely maintained in media prior to IVF and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), induced DNA strand breaks (up to 89 nicks x 10(-3) bp) and chromatin release. Unlike highly dispersed Alu repeat sequences, the centromeric heterochromatin was much less susceptible to endonuclease attack. In addition to chromatin release, the permeability of the sperm membrane was altered as evidenced by reduced accessibility of sperm nuclei to decondensation factors in mouse embryo extracts. Hybridization of cDNA microarrays with DNA released from spermatozoa revealed a consistent hypersensitivity of certain genes to endogenous cleavage including TP53, VHL (tumour suppressors), BRCA1 (breast cancer), NOS1 (neurotransmitter), PECAM1, FLT1 (angiogenesis) and CDKN1C (cell cycle/imprinted). N-tert-butyl hydroxylamine (NTBH), a derivative of the anti-teratogenic alpha-phenyl-N-t-butyl nitrone (PBN) and synthetic superoxide dismutase (SOD)/catalase mimetics inhibited chromatin release and sustained or dissipated relative mitochondrial membrane potential. Together, these results show a link between the hyperactivation of sperm mitochondria and chromosomal damage of specific genes in vitro, and that the potential risk of disruption of paternally contributed genes can be circumvented by antioxidants which are known to target mitochondria.
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