Origins and spread of the "Giessen Model" in university science.

In seeking to understand the rise of Justus Liebig's model for research and teaching, three interrelated and overlapping factors intrinsic to his specialty of organic chemistry have not been sufficiently brought into the explanatory field: the discovery of isomers, the novel practice of using "paper tools," and the "Kaliapparat" method of organic analysis. The existence of these three interacting factors, all of which emerged suddenly and essentially simultaneously around 1830, led to an explosive expansion in the new field of organic chemistry. Moreover, they made it a uniquely positioned context within which to create in Germany the practices that eventually were associated with all modern research universities. For comparative purposes, the spread of the new model to France, and more briefly, to the United States is also examined here. The eclectic approach used in this paper places greater emphasis on the contingencies of time, place, and discipline than many earlier studies of this problem have done; it is thus intended to provide a helpful complementary perspective.