This article reviews the bioactive components of human milk. Special emphasis is given to immune and nonimmune protective function of major and minor nutrients in human milk. Immune modulating components, such as cytokines, nucleotides, hormones, and growth factors, are discussed. Milk enzymes with digestive function in the newborn are reviewed.
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Prospects of bovine milk small extracellular vesicles in veterinary medicine.
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Extracellular vesicles (EV), including exosomes or small EV (sEV) derived from biological fluids, such as milk, have garnered increasing interest in veterinary medicine because of their role in the pathophysiology and understanding of the disease status of the host. Bovine milk serves as a rich source of sEV, containing diverse cargoes of nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids, which play a critical role in intercellular communication and regulation of host status. Although it is more difficult to isolate and purify sEV from bovine milk than from human breast milk, challenges persist in enabling the enrichment and analysis of sEV populations, facilitating the elucidation of their functional roles and prognostic potential in cattle diseases.
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