Pulmonary fibrosis (PF), a progressive and life-threatening pulmonary disease, is the main pathological basis of interstitial lung disease (ILD) which includes the idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). No effective therapeutic strategy for pulmonary fibrosis has been established. TGF- signaling has emerged as the vital regulator of PF; however, the detailed molecular mechanisms of TGF- in PF were uncertain.
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