Costly punishment sustains indirect reciprocity under low defection detectability.

Cooperation is fundamental to human societies, and indirect reciprocity, where individuals cooperate to build a positive reputation for future benefits, plays a key role in promoting it. Previous theoretical and experimental studies have explored both the effectiveness and limitations of costly punishment in sustaining cooperation. While empirical observations show that costly punishment by third parties is common, some theoretical models suggest it may not be effective in the context of indirect reciprocity, raising doubts about its potential to enhance cooperation.

Optimal lymph node dissection area for pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms by tumor location, size, and grade.

Background: Lymph node dissection is required for many pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms. However, the need for such dissection has rarely been examined in detail by the tumor size, tumor location, or World Health Organization grading. The objective is to determine which characteristics of pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms require lymph node dissection, and to what extent lymph node dissection should be performed.

Exploring the Genetic Landscape of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Unlocking the Differences in Between Latent and Active Tuberculosis.

Background: Tuberculosis (TB), caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), can enter a dormant phase within host tissues, complicating treatment and highlighting the need to investigate the genetic changes associated with dormancy.

Methods: This study examined clinical isolates of MTB, representing a range of susceptibility profiles and standard reference laboratory strains, i.e.

Early Cryoablation After First Diagnosis of Atrial Fibrillation Reduces Arrhythmia Recurrence in Heart Failure Patients.

Background: Atrial fibrillation (AF) and heart failure (HF) often coexist, leading to increased mortality. A cryoballoon-based approach is a potential treatment for patients with HF because of its safety and efficacy.

Objectives: The authors sought to evaluate the optimal timing of cryoballoon ablation after the first clinical diagnosis of AF and its prognosis for patients with HF.

Indirect reciprocity under opinion synchronization.

Indirect reciprocity is a key explanation for the exceptional magnitude of cooperation among humans. This literature suggests that a large proportion of human cooperation is driven by social norms and individuals' incentives to maintain a good reputation. This intuition has been formalized with two types of models.