Hierarchical biofilm models using sodium alginate beads containing bacteria embedded in a cellulose-chitosan hydrogel matrix.

In biofilm studies, a stable model is crucial for exploring infection mechanisms, antibiotic resistance, and evaluating materials' antibiofilm performance. Cultured biofilms often face challenges, such as slow maturation or rapid bacteria dispersion. Therefore, developing a stable, mature-stage biofilm model is critical for effective biofilm research.